religiousaffections

Individualism and utilitarianism rule the day in Western culture among both Christians and non-Christians.  Constant self-focus has driven Americans into an increasingly fragmented society where individuals are primarily concerned with their own well-being.  This self-focus informs the way people deal with moral decision making and the number of ethical dilemmas that are up for discussion in this country today. 

There are more people in this country today than ever before and yet; Americans maintain increasingly individualized, isolated lives.  One Harvard study shows that the number of socially isolated Americans has more than doubled in the last twenty years. One might disagree having taken a cursory glance at the apparent explosion of social and civic groups in the United States in the last several decades.  Such groups include educational/school service groups (PTA), youth groups, homeowners associations, religious groups (including local churches), fraternal clubs, and charitable organizations.  While the numbers of such civic and social groups are blossoming, their members are not.  In the last quarter century the number of voluntary associations has tripled, however the average membership appears to be about one-tenth as large.  Robert Putnam, in his study on the decline of “social capital” (The central premise of social capital is that social networks have great value.  In speaking of social capital, Putnam refers to the collective value of all “social networks” and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other) in America, put it this way; “The organizational eruption between the 1960s and the 1990s represented a proliferation of letterheads, not a boom of grassroots participation” (Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 49).

With the introduction of the Internet into American society - it stands to reason that people could live out their entire existence without stepping foot outside their home.  In this day it is not hard to imagine that one could grow up at home, be home schooled, get a job working from home, order groceries online and subsequently never leave the comfort his or her living room.  This extreme case may not be a lucid example of what is happening across the country, but this prospect is not all that unreasonable.  Men can and do go to work, earn pay, and return home to wives that have done the same and to kids who have earned a grade at school.  They retreat into their homes to sit in front of televisions and computers that will keep them disconnected from any true experience of community.  The aforementioned example is probably one for optimists.  Americans’ pursuit of the dream life - freedom from financial insecurity, worry, and dependence upon another has lead to a steep decline in marriages, and a steep decline in children among married couples.

Among America’s increasingly post-modern population Christians and non-Christians alike have initiated a good deal of discussion about reviving community.  In particular, a large portion of this discussion has taken place among the proponents of what has become known as the Emergent Church movement as they seek to reverse the trend of individualism in the church.  Dr. David Wells offers insight into the false assumption that the “autonomous man” was a signpost only of the modern era when he states that there are “threads of continuity between modernity and postmodernity and not least among these is the fact that at the center of both is the autonomous self, despite all the postmodern chatter about the importance of community” (Wells, Above All Earthly Pow’rs, p. 67).  Autonomy is here to stay.

So modernity produced unparalleled autonomy, individualism, and thus consumerism in the West - but what does this have to do with ethics?  The habitual autonomous individualism of the last century has more than informed this country’s ethics - it has aided in the construction of the vast edifice that is utilitarianism. Within the differing consequentialist (or utilitarian) theories of ethics, ethical judgment is based upon the results of moral events.  That is, there are no inherently good or bad actions and therefore the ends justify the means.  In particular, there are four consequentialist theories toward which Americans tend to lean when making moral decisions.

The first theory to consider is ethical universalism (or altruistic utilitarianism).  Ethical universalism contends that what is “right” is defined by the greatest good (see Peter Singer).  An example to help one think about this ethical theory is as follows: News has broken that a terrorist has planted a nuclear bomb in New York City and that it will be detonated in approximately 24 hours.  Ben, as an agent for the FBI is put in charge of the task force that is to locate either the bomb or the terrorist and divert this catastrophe from happening.  With 15 hours left on the clock, intelligence leads Ben’s team to the front door of the man that is strongly believed to be responsible for planting the warhead.  The team takes the suspect into custody and the great question arises as the team considers how they intend to get the needed information about the bomb’s location.  Is torture an option for getting the necessary information to save millions of lives?  The altruistic utilitarian says, “Of course,” because in saving millions at the expense of one, the benefits far outweigh the detriments. 

The second theory to consider is ethical egoism (or egoistic utilitarianism).  An ethical egoist would contend that what is “right” is defined by the advancement of self-interest.  Ethical egoism takes three shapes.  First, individual ethical egoism states that all people should do whatever benefits them personally.  Second, personal ethical egoism states that one ought to act in his or her self-interest, yet not make claims about what other people should do.  Finally, a universal ethical egoist says that everyone should be good, just, loving, and honest because such virtues serve everyone’s self-interest. 

Thirdly, one might consider Epicureanism (hedonistic utilitarianism), which holds that what is “right” is defined by the achievement of pleasure and the minimization of pain.  Epicurus’ intended purpose in life was to have peace of mind and pleasure through friendship and contentment - not through hedonism and self-indulgence.  Ethically speaking, this is exactly what Epicureanism has become.  For a hedonistic utilitarian, life becomes chiefly about “what makes me feel good.”  Though an action is immoral - if it brings more pleasure into the world than pain - it will be viewed as good.

Finally, situationalism (idealistic utilitarianism) contends that what is “right” is defined by the maintenance of an ideal.  In situational ethics, love is held in highest regard and is believed to be the only thing that is intrinsically good.  According to Joseph Fletcher, the ruling norm for all Christian decision-making must be love and decisions made with love in view never happen prescriptively, but situationally (Fletcher, Situation Ethics, p. 56, 134).  A Christian situationalist can then justify any moral act in the name of pursuing an ideal - that is, love.

Consequentialism, in all her forms, is a corrupt system by which to make ethical decisions.  Utilitarianism, as a guiding system for making ethical decisions is distorted at its very core.  The ends will always justify the means of an action for every consequentialist.  The problem arises in that human beings are unable to accurately predict consequences.  The consequences of any one action can be unending for any number of people.  For example, David could save John’s life by pulling him out of a terrible house fire, which could result in John eventually becoming a follower of Christ.  What might one say if John eventually ends up getting into a car wreck causing the deaths of 10 people?  Does that necessarily change the “goodness” of what David did 10 years ago when he saved John’s life?  Surely not.

Further, human beings cannot fairly evaluate the consequences of any one action.  This is because humans will always act out of some personal bias towards self or those they love.  It is problematic that concepts such as volition (motive), guilt, and innocence are totally marginalized - once again, because the ends justify the means.  The most perfunctory glimpse into culture will provide evidence of the unfulfilling nature of utilitarianism.

What Happened to Community?

Today Americans bowl alone.  While a record number of people bowl today in this country, league bowling has plunged by almost fifty percent in the last 25 years (Putnam, 112).  One might consider an example from bowling to be an inconsequential one.  However, according to the DDB Needham Life Style survey, bowlers outnumber golfers, joggers, and soccer players - making bowling the most popular competitive sport in America (see http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/ICSC/datasets.html).

In times past, one rudimentary conception of reality was commonly held among most people in the West.  That is, a monotheistic, generally Christian worldview.  Though some held it stronger than others - this understanding of reality shaped people’s decision-making, and how most people thought about life, morality, and authority.  This conception of reality, for a culture, “is the sanction to which both ideas and beliefs are ultimately referred to for verification” (Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences, p. 18).

In the last several decades, we have seen an unsettling shift away from a single, commonly held conception of reality, which Richard Weaver refers as a “metaphysical dream” - in favor of multiple conceptions or perspectives.  Richard Weaver comments on the loss of common ground; “Without the metaphysical dream it is impossible to think of men living together harmoniously over an extent of time” (Weaver, 18).  This single conception mindset was a signpost of most of the modern era and the ground was seemingly level.

In the postmodern era, it can be expected that we will traverse uneven terrain, as the postmodern outlook has already taken on various shapes and even more expressions.  Postmoderns have done away with modernism’s knowable, objective reality in which they once found meaning - in favor of what will eventually end in nihilism.  Dr. Wells asserts that, “Without some kind of meta-narrative to discipline private consciousness, meaning inevitably dies” (Wells, p. 67).  It is this loss of meaning, of one commonly held notion of reality that has significantly decreased people’s ability to coexist in maintainable community of any variety. 

Nowhere has individualism negatively affected community life like it has within the Christian Church.  It is relatively clear that discipleship and sanctification have become individual pursuits.  This may not be true at the beginning of one’s Christian walk, but eventually the new Christian is expected to mature enough to be able to maintain his or her Christian journey alone (One might not get this answer on paper from any local church, but practically this is how discipleship works in too many churches today).

This appears to be the trend in popular church culture.  Christians are to come to the church building once a week to get a message from a pastor who will tell them exactly how the Bible applies to their lives and they are expected to figure it out, largely on their own.  In evangelicalism, sanctification and discipleship are evaluated on the basis of what a Christian does as opposed to what kind of person he or she is. Discipleship has become a “do this” mentality.  This is why Christians are listening to sermons entitled Five Steps to a Better Marriage or Three Ways to Reach Your Potential.  As if following rules and principles prescribed by a pastor makes a man a better husband de facto. 

When such steps are pursued individually, Christians tend to become the kind of person that they think they should be based on a pastor’s words and on that singular interpretation of Scripture.  Left alone, believers will never be able to see their sinful habits - much less, the sinfulness that has taken up root in their hearts.  Instead, the focus must be shifted from actions to character.  This is becoming the right kind of person at the very heart level and allowing this love for Christ (worship) to inform our behavior - the way we live (ethics).  In John 14:15, Jesus says, “If you love me, you will keep my commandments.”  Sanctification is a community project - born along by the gracious ministry of the Holy Spirit (John 14:16-17).

God give us the grace to think well about secular culture and our own Christian cultures, constantly comparing them to, and working to reform them according to your Kingdom described in Scripture.